Fundamentals of Geography Essay

In geology, a rock is a naturally occurring immobile aggregate of one or more(prenominal) minerals or mineraloids. For utilization, the roughhewn rock, granite, is a combination of the quartz, feldspar and biotite minerals. The publics outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. Rocks have been employ by man variety plant throughout history. From the pock Age rocks have been functiond for tools. The minerals and metals we find in rocks have been indwelling to human civilization. 1 Three study(ip) groups of rocks atomic number 18 defined impassioned, sedimentary, and metamorphous.The scientific subject field of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component of geology. At a granular level, rocks ar compose of grains of minerals, which, in turn, ar homogeneous solids create from a chemic heigh cristal that is arranged in an orderly manner. The aggregate minerals forming the rock atomic number 18 held in concert by chemical bonds. The faces an d copiousness of minerals in a rock ar determined by the manner in which the rock was formed. M whatsoever rocks run off silica (SiO2) a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74. 3% of the publics crust.This material forms crystals with different compounds in the rock. The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their name and properties. 2 Rocks are geologically classified according to characteristics such(prenominal) as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, the texture of the constituent particles, and particle size. These physical properties are the end settlement of the processes that formed the rocks. 3 Over the course of time, rocks crowd out transform from one eccentric person into another, as described by the geological model called the rock cycle.These correctts arise cardinal cosmopolitan classes of rockigneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The three classes of rocks are subdivided into many groups. However, in that location are no hard and fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in the proportions of their constituent minerals they pass by every gradation into one another, the distinctive grammatical constructions also of one kind of rock may often be traced gradually merging into those of another. thence the definitions adopted in establishing rock nomenclature merely correspond to more or less arbitrary selected points in a continuously graduate series. 4Igneous Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus importation of fire, from ignis convey fire) forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. This magma piece of tail be derived from partial(p) melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planets pallium or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is cause by one or more of three processes an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a permute in composition. Igneous rocks are divided into two important categories plutonic roc k and volcanic. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizesslowly in spite of appearance the body politics crust.A common example of this face is granite. volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the scrape up either aslava or fragmental ejecta, forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. 3 The chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically forms a sequence known as Bowens reaction series, after the Canadian petrologist Norman L. Bowen. Most major igneous rocks are be along this scale. 2 About 64. 7% of the existences crust by volume consists of igneous rocks making it the approximately plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are granite, and 17% granodiorites and diorites. only(prenominal) 0. 6% are syenites and 0. 3% peridotites and dunites. The oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of mafic composition. Granites and comparable rocks, known as meta-granitoids, form much of the Conti nental crust. 5 Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, close of them having formed beneath the surface of Earths crust. These have diverse properties, depending on their composition and how they were formed. aqueous Sedimentary rocks are formed by sedimentation of particles at or near the Earths surface and within bodies of water.This process causes clasticsediments or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate, or for minerals to chemically precipitate (evaporite) from a solution. The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and cementation during diagenesis. Before universe deposited, sediment was formed by weathering and erosion in a source theater, and then transported to the push through of deposition by water,wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers which are called agents of denudation. mud rocks comprise 65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone) sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 o 15% (limestone and dolostone). 3 About 7. 9% of the crust by volume is unruffled of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the eternal sleep consist of limestone (6%), sandstone and arkoses (12%). 5 metamorphic Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock typesedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rockto differenttemperature and pressure conditions than those in which the original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism meaning to transfer in form. The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone.The original rock, known as the protolith, transforms into other mineral types or else into other forms of the same minerals, such as by recrystallization. 3 The temperatures and pressures requi florid for this process are ever heightser than those found at the Earths surface temperatures greater than 150 to 200 C and pressures of 1500 bars. 6 Metamorphic rocks compose 27. 4% of the crust by volume. 5 The three major classes of metamorphic rock are base d upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion of magma that lovingnesss the adjoin rock causes contact metamorphisma temperature-dominated transformation.Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried cryptical under the ground pressure is dominant and temperature plays a little role. This is termed burial chamber metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as jade. Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions. 2 Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess a texture are refer bolshy to as foliated the remainder are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present.Schists are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of lamellar minerals such as micas. A gneiss has visible bands of differing lightness, with a common example being the granite gneiss. otherwise var ieties of foliated rock include slates, phyllites, and mylonite. Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble,soapstone, and serpentine. This arm contains quartzitea metamorphosed form of sandstoneand hornfels. 2 In geography comprises are one of the most important tools researchers, cartographers, students and others can use to examine the entire Earth or a specific part of it.Simply defined maps are pictures of the Earths surface. They can be general reference and make landforms, political boundaries, water, the locations of cities, or in the case of thematic maps, array different only if very specific topics such as the average rainfall distri justion for an area or the distribution of a certain disease throughout a county. Today with the increased use of GIS, also known as Geographic Information Systems, thematic maps are growing in importance. in that respect are however applications for different types of general reference maps when the different t ypes are understood correctly.These maps do not just attest a citys location for example instead the different map types can show a plethora of information about sends around the world. The side by side(p) is a list of each major map type used by geographers and a description of what they are and an example of each kind. governmental chromosome mapping A political map does not show any topographic features. It instead focuses solely on the state and national boundaries of a place. They also include the locations of cities both large and small, depending on the detail of the map. A common type of political map would be one presentation the 50 U.S. states and their borders along with the unify States north and south international borders (map of the United States). Physical Map A physical map is one that shows the physical decorate features of a place. They generally show things desire mountains, rivers and lakes and water is always shown with blue. Mountains and elevation changes are usually shown with different colors and shades to show relief. Normally on physical maps green shows lower elevations while browns show high elevations. An example of a physical map is one show the state of hello (map of Hawaii). pocket-size elevation coastal regions are shown in dark green, while the higher elevations transition from orange to dark brown. Rivers are shown in blue. Topographic Map A topographic map is similar to a physical map in that it shows different physical landscape features. They are different however because they use contour debates instead of colors to show changes in the landscape. Contour lines on topographic maps are usually spaced at regular intervals to show elevation changes (e. g. each line represents a 100 foot (30 m) elevation change) and when lines are close together the terrain is steep.For example a topographic map showing the Big Island of Hawaii would have contour lines that are close together near the steep, high elevation mountains of Mauna Loa and Kilauea (map of the Big Island). By contrast, the low elevation, flat coastal areas show contour lines that are spread apart. Climate Map A temper map shows information about the humour of an area. They can show things like the specific climatic zones of an area based on the temperature, the amount of degree Celsius an area receives or average number of cloudy long time. These maps normally use colors to show different climatic areas.A climate map for Australia for example uses colors to show differences between the temperate area of capital of Seychelles and desert region in the center of the continent. Economic or resource Map An economic or resource map shows the specific type of economic activity or natural resources present in an area through the use of different symbols or colors depending on what is being shown on the map. For example an economic activity map for Brazil can use colors to show different agricultural products of pissn areas, earn for natural resources and symbols for different industries (image showing a map of Brazil). Road Map A road map is one of the most widely used map types.These maps show major and minor highways and roads (depending on detail) as well as things like airports, city locations and points of interest like parks, campgrounds and monuments. major(ip) highways on a road map are generally red and larger than other roads, while minor roads are a light source color and a narrower line. A road map of San Francisco, atomic number 20 for example would show the major highways as a wide red line and other large roads as a lighter red with minor streets as gray (map of San Francisco). Thematic Map A thematic map is a map that focuses on a special(prenominal) theme or special topic and they are different from the half-dozen aforementioned general reference maps because they do not just show natural features like rivers, cities, political subdivisions, elevation and highways. If these items a re on a thematic map, they are background information and are used as reference points to enhance the maps theme. An example of a thematic map would be one showing the population change of Canada in specific locations from 1996 to 2001.The map shows the theme it is attempting to get across to its audience and uses a political map (e. g. one showing the provincial and territorial borders of Canada) to give it more of a reference. What Is the Difference Between abide and Climate? Its a sweltering midsummer day. It must be global warming, mutters someone. hardly is it the Earths changing climate that has made the day so warm? Or, is it just the weather that is so unbearable? Weather is the combine of events that happen each day in our automated teller including temperature, rainfall and humidity. Weather is not the same everywhere.Perhaps it is hot, dry and sunny today where you live, but in other parts of the world it is cloudy, raining or even snowing. Everyday, weather events ar e recorded and predicted by meteorologists worldwide. Climate in your place on the globe controls the weather where you live. Climate is the average weather recipe in a place over many years. So, the climate of Antarctica is sort of different than the climate of a tropical island. Hot summer days are quite typical of climates in many regions of the world, even without the do of global warming. Climates are changing because our Earth is warming, according to the research of scientists.Does this impart to a warm summer day? It may, however global climate change is actually much more complicated than that because a change in the temperature can cause changes in other weather elements such as clouds or precipitation. Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and the means (together with the smaller ocean circulation) by whichthermal energy is distributed on the surface of the Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic climatological structure remains reasonably unremitting.Individual weather systems mid-latitude depressions, or tropical convective cells occur randomly, and it is accredited that weather cannot be predicted beyond a fairly short destine perhaps a month in theory, or (currently) about ten days in practice (see Chaos theory and Butterfly effect). Nonetheless, as the climate is the average of these systems and patterns where and when they tend to occur again and again it is immutable over longer periods of time. As a rule, the cells of Earths atmosphere commove polewards in warmer climates (e. g. nterglacials compared to glacials), but remain largely constant even due to continental drift they are, fundamentally, a property of the Earths size, rotation rate, heating and atmospheric depth, all of which change little. tectonic uplift can significantly alter major elements of it, however for example the jet stream -, and plate tectonics shift ocean currents. In the extremely hot climates of the Mesozoic, indications of a third desert belt at the Equator has been found it was perhaps caused by convection. But even then, the overall latitudinal pattern of Earths climate was not much different from the one today.The wind belts girdling the planet are organised into three cells the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, and the charged cell. Contrary to the impression given in the simplified diagram, the vast absolute majority of the vertical motion occurs in the Hadley cell the explanations of the other two cells are complex. Note that there is one discrete Hadley cell that may split, shift and merge in a complicated process over timecitation needed. Low and high pressures on earths surface are fit by opposite relative pressures in the upper troposphere.